Archived - Ministerial Transition Book: November 2015

History of Crown-Aboriginal Relationships

First Nation, Inuit and Métis peoples' relationships with the Government have evolved over time, and continue to do so.

Early interactions between European explorers and Indians (now commonly referred to as First Nations), Inuit, and later Métis, were based on mutually-beneficial objectives and strategic alliances largely focusing on trade and protection.

The nature of the Government-Aboriginal relationships evolved as non-Aboriginal populations increased and conflicts between colonial powers ended in North America. From the mid-1800s to the late 1960s, the goals of government policy regarding First Nation peoples gradually shifted to securing unsettled lands and bringing the Aboriginal population into the socioeconomic mainstream, through strict government management of community affairs and educational programs such as the residential school system. The latter, which involved the removal of 150,000 Aboriginal children, often forcibly, from their families and communities to attend residential schools, has now been acknowledged as harmful and misguided.

These policy approaches, aiming to integrate Aboriginal peoples into the broader Canadian population, informed the 1969 White Paper. The White Paper was a federal policy proposal for a series of wide-ranging measures, including the elimination of reserves and repeal of the Indian Act. The White Paper was strongly rejected by First Nation leaders as threatening to fully subsume Aboriginal peoples and cultures within the broader Canadian society. Reaction to the White Paper led to the strengthening of a politically active and articulate Aboriginal leadership, which began to engage with all levels of government, the media, and internationally on questions of Aboriginal rights.

These developments marked the beginning of a new, modern phase in the relationship with the gradual end of what some described as assimilation-based policies and emergence of new approaches to better address Aboriginal rights and interests. The affirmation of Aboriginal and treaty rights in the Constitution Act, 1982, was a seminal moment in the efforts to recognize First Nation, Inuit and Métis peoples, their cultures and traditions as essential elements of the Canadian fabric. Further attempts to give expression to Aboriginal and treaty rights through constitutional negotiations in the early 1990s were unsuccessful with the rejection of the Charlottetown Accord in the 1992 referendum

The subsequent report of the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples (RCAP), released in November 1996, called for a new relationship between the Crown and Aboriginal people based on four principles: mutual recognition, mutual respect, sharing and mutual responsibility – and identified four pillars on which a new relationship could be built: treaties, governance, lands and resources, and economic development. Canada's response to RCAP was issued in 1998 with Gathering Strength – Canada's Aboriginal Action Plan, a long-term, broad-based policy approach designed to increase the quality of life of Aboriginal people and to promote self-sufficiency. It focused on four pillars: renewing the partnership; strengthening governance; developing a new fiscal relationship; and supporting strong communities, people and economies. High-profile policy discussions continued through processes led by the Reference Group of Ministers on Aboriginal Policy and discussions leading to the Kelowna Accord, which was ultimately set aside by the calling of the 2006 federal election

The process of reconciling the rights and interests of First Nation, Inuit and Métis peoples within Canada continues today. The January 2012 historic Crown-First Nations Gathering, an event attended by the Prime Minister, several federal Ministers and more than 170 First Nation Chiefs, was intended to renew relationships, and resulted in the identification of common priorities to improve socioeconomic outcomes and advance Aboriginal rights. On August 22, 2013, the Prime Minister, accompanied by a number of Cabinet Ministers, met for an Inuit-specific gathering with Inuit leadership in Rankin Inlet, Nunavut. The purpose of the meeting was to review federal approaches to Inuit-related matters to see whether there are issues that could be advanced via modifications to the current federal approach.

Looking to the future, the prospect of reconciliation and the nature of Crown-Aboriginal relations are likely to have a prominent role in the public discourse, given the June 2015 release of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission's Summary Report, the upcoming Final Report by the Commission in late 2015, and Canada 150 celebrations in 2017.

Treaties and Self-Government Agreements

Treaties are a central element of the Crown's relationship with First Nation and Inuit peoples.

Pre-1975 treaties, generally known as "historic treaties," range from "peace and friendship treaties" concluded with First Nations in the 18th century, to early land cessions throughout the 19th century, to the post-Confederation treaties such as the "numbered Treaties" negotiated between 1871 and 1921. These treaties served as the primary means of formalizing the relationship between First Nations and colonial governments, and later, the Government of Canada, as well as securing title and open lands for settlement over 50% of Canada. They are viewed by First Nations as sacred and solemn agreements.

Historic treaties are not uniform, as they reflect the historic circumstances and political or policy imperatives of the time. The Government of Canada does not acknowledge the existence of any historic treaties with the Inuit or the Métis, although a number of Métis litigants are seeking recognition of their claims to treaty rights with respect to several of the numbered treaties.

Modern treaties are comprehensive land claim agreements that have been negotiated since 1973, when the Government of Canada adopted a policy to negotiate such agreements. These modern treaties cover 40% of Canada, include more than 90 First Nation and Inuit communities, and involve approximately 100,000 beneficiaries. To date, 27 modern treaties have been entered into with First Nations and Inuit groups, providing them with, among other benefits, jurisdiction over lands and resources, and in most cases include self-government agreements.

While comprehensive claims typically include self-government arrangements, stand-alone self-government agreements have been negotiated and implemented in a variety of forms in Canada. In collaboration with its Aboriginal and provincial/territorial partners, Canada has completed 22 comprehensive self-government agreements involving 36 Aboriginal groups and another establishing a public government in Nunavut involving 26 communities. These agreements and their implementing legislation provide Aboriginal groups with modern government structures and arrangements and an increased capacity and responsibility to manage their own affairs. These agreements typically provide for, among other powers, jurisdiction over governance, lands and resources. For First Nations, these agreements replace the Indian Act with a negotiated, modern legislative framework.

As a general rule, historic treaties are vaguely worded, while others provide for more limited land rights and financial benefits than modern treaties, frustrating signatory First Nations who see unjust imbalances between their historic treaties and more generous, much more specific, modern settlements.

All treaties, both historic and modern, present implementation challenges related to the interpretation of Crown obligations and costs, and the extent of extinguishment of Aboriginal and treaty rights. In turn, treaty-related claims represent a significant portion of the inventory of active Aboriginal litigation cases, pointing to the need for more effectively negotiate and implement claims.

Aboriginal Peoples

A variety of legal and cultural delineations exist among, and within, First Nation, Inuit and Métis communities.

Section 35 of the Constitution Act, 1982, states that the Aboriginal peoples of Canada include Indians (usually referred to as First Nations), Inuit and Métis.

Aboriginal Demographics

The Aboriginal population is younger than the overall Canadian population and is growing more rapidly.

In the 2011 National Household Survey, 1.4 million people in Canada identified themselves as Aboriginal, representing 4% of the Canadian population.

Description of Aboriginal demographics

A pie chart, based on the 2011 Household Survey, showing the distribution of population for the 1.4 million of Canadians who identity as Aboriginal.

Of those who identify as Aboriginal: 697,510 individuals (49.8%) are Registered (Status) Indians; 213,900 (15.3%) are non-Status Indians; 418,380 (29.9%) are Métis; and 59,115 (4.2%) are Inuit. About 11,780 (0.8%) identify as Other Aboriginal (those who reported more than one identity group, and who reported being a band member with no Aboriginal identity and no registered Indian status.)

Distribution of Population

Registered Indian	49.8 %
Metis	29.9 %
Non-Status Indian	15.3 %
Inuit	4.2 %
Other Aboriginal*	0,8 %
Total	100.0 %
*Other Aboriginal refers to respondents who reported more than one identity group, and those who reported being a band member with no Aboriginal identity and no registered Indian status.

In 2011, nearly half (45%) of the off-reserve Aboriginal population was under the age of 25, compared to 29% for the non-Aboriginal population. About 51% of Status Indians living on reserve were under 25 years of age.

Both the concentration and number of Aboriginal peoples vary greatly across the country. About eight in ten Aboriginal people reside in Ontario and Western Canada. The largest Aboriginal population is in Ontario, where more than 301,400 Aboriginal people reside. The concentration of Aboriginal peoples among the overall population is highest in the territories, ranging from 23% of people in the Yukon to 86% of people in Nunavut having Aboriginal identity. Among the provinces, Manitoba and Saskatchewan have the highest concentrations of Aboriginal people at roughly four times the national average (17 and 16%, respectively). In most other provinces, less than 5% of people are Aboriginal.

Almost half (45%) of the Status Indian population lived on reserve. Among the other groups, the majority of Non-Status Indians and Métis (75 and 71%, respectively) lived in urban areas in 2011, while Inuit lived predominantly in rural areas (56%).

Population projections for the 2011 to 2016 time period estimate that the Aboriginal population could grow by between 1.3% and 2.5% annually. The latter figure includes the possibility that past trends of changes in individuals' self-identification from non-Aboriginal to Métis or Non-Status Indian (i.e. ethnic mobility) may continue into the future. On reserve, the average annual rate of growth among the Status Indian population is 2.0% over the same time period. By comparison, the Canadian population as a whole is projected to grow at a lower rate of 1.1% per year over the same period. The effects of the rapidly growing Aboriginal populations are particularly important on reserves and in the North, where increasing demand for basic services and programs has significant implications for costs and achieving quality of life improvements.

Aboriginal Socioeconomic Indicators

Community Well-Being (CWB) Index: Long-term Trends

Description of Community Well-Being (CWB) Index: Long-term Trends

This line graph compares the average Community Well-Being (CWB) index scores of First Nations, Inuit and non-Aboriginal communities across Canada from 1981 to 2011.

• The average CWB index score in non-Aboriginal communities in Canada was 67 in 1981, 71 in 1991, 72 in 1996, 73 in 2001, 77 in 2006, and 79 in 2011.
• The average CWB index score for First Nations communities was 47 in 1981, 51 in 1991, 55 in 1996, 57 in 2001, 57 in 2006, and 59 in 2011.
• The average CWB index score for Inuit communities was 48 in 1981, 57 in 1991, 60 in 1996, 61 in 2001, 62 in 2006 and 63 in 2011.

Generally, Aboriginal peoples in Canada do not enjoy the same standard of living as most other Canadians.

Broad policy toward First Nations, Inuit and Métis, from the mid-1800s through to 1969, contributed to the erosion of traditional Aboriginal social and governance structures, and to a legacy of socioeconomic problems.

In recent decades, more progressive federal social programming contributed to gradually reducing the socioeconomic disparities between Aboriginal peoples and other Canadians. At the same time, socioeconomic outcomes for non-Aboriginal Canadians have been rising at a faster rate. The latest community well-being index scores, based on the 2011 National Household Survey indicate that national averages have been increasing across all types of communities; however, the gap between Aboriginal and Non-Aboriginal communities has been persistent over the past 30 years.

Overall Aboriginal population averages mask regional and group-specific differences, which suggest the need for tailored, as opposed to "one-size-fits-all" approaches, to close socioeconomic gaps. In general, socioeconomic outcomes for the Métis and Non-Status Indians have been improving at a faster rate than the outcomes for First Nation and Inuit populations. For instance, the 2011 National Household Survey shows that for the working age population (25-64):

• 35.3% of First Nation and 48.5% of Inuit people had not completed high school, compared to 20.4% among the Métis and 22.3% among Non-Status Indians; and
• the unemployment rate was 17.2% and 17.3% for First Nation and Inuit people respectively, compared to 8.5% for Métis and 9.4% for Non-Status Indians.

Northern Context

Generally speaking, Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal populations largely live side-by-side throughout the North and receive programs and services from the territorial governments

Description of the map of the North

A map of the six regions in northern Canada: Yukon, Inuvialuit, Northwest Territories, Nunavut, Nunavik and Nunatsiavut. On the map the following communities are identified, per region.

The following communities are in the Yukon:

• Watson Lake
• Teslin
• Whitehorse
• Haines Junction
• Ross River
• Carmacks
• Beaver Creek
• Dawson
• Elsa

The following communities are in Inuvialuit:

• Fort McPherson
• Old Crow
• Inuvik
• Aklavik
• Tsiigehtchic
• Tukoyaktuk
• Sachs Harbour
• Paulatuk
• Ulukhaktok

The following communities are in the Northwest Territories:

• Fort Smith
• Fort Resolution
• Hay River
• Jean Marie River
• Fort Simpson
• Wrigley
• Lutselk'e
• Yellowknife
• Behchoko
• Whati
• Tulita
• Deline
• Norman Wells
• Colville Lake
• Fort Good Hope

The following communities are in Nunatsiavut

• Nain
• Makkovik
• Postville
• Hopedale
• Rigolet
• Goose Bay

The following communities are in Nunavut:

• Arviat
• Whale Cove
• Rankin Inlet
• Chesterfield Inlet
• Coral Harbour
• Baker Lake
• Wager Bay
• Repulse Bay
• Bathurst Inlet
• Kugluktuk
• Cambridge Bay
• Gjoa Haven
• Kugaaruk
• Taloyoak
• Hall Beach
• Igloolik
• Cape Dorset
• Kimmirut
• Iqaluit
• Pangnirtung
• Qikiqtarjuaq
• Clyde River
• Pond Inlet
• Arctic Bay
• Resolute
• Grise Fiord
• Sanikiluaq

The following are communities in Nunavik

• Kuujjuarapik
• Umiujaq
• Inukjuak
• Puvirnituq
• Akulivik
• Ivujivik
• Salluit
• Kangiqsujuaq
• Quaqtaq
• Kangirsuk
• Aupaluk
• Tasiujaq
• Kuujjuaq
• Kangiqsualujjuaq

The two other areas identified are Qaanaaq in Greenland and Churchill in Manitoba.

Canada's North has many definitions: defined by its peoples; defined by science as the southern limit of discontinuous permafrost; or, in a geopolitical sense, distinguishing the territories from the provinces. At AANDC, it is generally understood as including both the territories and regions of the Inuit homeland (Inuit Nunangat). The definition of North notably includes the Inuit regions of Nunavik in Northern Quebec and Nunatsiavut in Labrador, given that these regions possess characteristics similar to those in the territories.

A significant proportion of the Northern population identifies with one of Canada's Aboriginal groups – approximately 86% in Nunavut, 50% in Northwest Territories and 23% in Yukon. The relationship with Aboriginal peoples in the North has evolved differently than in the South. To begin, the Indian Act has limited application to First Nations in the territories. There are currently only two reserves in the territories^{Footnote 1}, both of which are located in the Northwest Territories, and only 25 First Nations across the territories currently operate under the Indian Act.^{Footnote 2}

Inuit have experienced a similar historical situation as Northern First Nation and Métis peoples, although substantial contact with European settlers came much later for the Inuit. In 1939, the Supreme Court decision in Re. Eskimo established federal jurisdiction over Inuit affairs. Nevertheless, with the exception of land claims legislation, federal interventions with the Inuit have largely been carried out on a policy basis rather than a legislative basis

Constitutional and Legal Context

The Minister's mandate is derived from a number of statutes, primarily section 91(24) of the Constitution Act, 1867, which gives the federal government exclusive legislative authority over "Indians, and Lands reserved for Indians"; section 35 of the Constitution Act, 1982^{Footnote 8}; and the Department of Indian Affairs and Northern Development Act.

Legal and constitutional rights and ensuing obligations with respect to Aboriginal peoples are not always clearly defined between federal and provincial governments. However, in most cases, Canada and the provinces have yet to seek clarity from the courts. For example, section 91(24) of the Constitution Act, 1867 provides federal jurisdiction to legislate for matters related to Indians and lands reserved to Indians. Section 88 of the Indian Act^{Footnote 9} provides for provincial laws of general application, in the absence of federal legislation directing otherwise, to apply to Indians on reserve. In practice, this has implications for certain policy areas such as child welfare – where the services on reserve, while supported by Government of Canada funding as a matter of policy, are delivered subject to provincial statutes and standards.

In addition, sections 92 and 93 of the Constitution Act, 1867, confer provincial legislatures with authority to make laws in relation to a range of social services and education, respectively. While strictly speaking, legal responsibility for programming on reserve is not thought to directly arise from these sections, there is likely room under both federal and provincial jurisdictions to legislate for on-reserve Indians in matters of education and social services.

Section 4 of the British North America Act, 1871 – Enactment number 5 provides that the Parliament of Canada may from time to time make provision for the administration, peace, order, and good government of any territory not included in a province.

The Government of Canada funds the delivery of many province-like programs and services on reserve as a matter of policy, rather than a legal requirement. Notwithstanding that, First Nations are of the view that there is a federal fiduciary duty and/or treaty relationship, resulting in perceptions that the unique Crown-First Nations relationship would be diminished through delegation of functions to the provinces.

Aboriginal peoples residing off reserve have full access to provincial social and education programming. This context points to the need to work closely with provincial and territorial governments in developing solutions to issues facing Aboriginal populations.

Statutory Authorities of the AANDC Minister

The Indian Act remains the primary vehicle for exercising federal jurisdiction under section 91(24) of the Constitution and guiding how the Minister interacts with First Nations. The Act provides for the administration of Indian status, reserve lands, Indian moneys, Indian estates, and band governance, including elections.

In addition to the Indian Act, the AANDC Minister has authority, in full or in part, under 93 statutes, covering a wide range of subjects and responsibilities (see tab 4 for complete list). More recently, various pieces of opt-in legislation (e.g. First Nations Elections Act) have given First Nations greater control of their affairs, while other legislative pieces have addressed matters of health and safety (e.g. Safe Drinking Water for First Nations Act), and accountability (e.g. First Nations Financial Transparency Act) and Northern governance (e.g. Northwest Territories Devolution Act)

Other legislative responsibilities range from implementing comprehensive land claim and self-government agreements where Aboriginal groups have assumed authority for governance. Others include land and resource management (e.g. the James Bay and Northern Quebec Agreement); the management of Northern regulatory regimes (e.g. Northwest Territories Waters Act); and the authority to make regulations (e.g. power to develop regulations setting royalty rates and liability limits under the First Nations Commercial and Industrial Development Act).

Over time, First Nations have taken on greater responsibility for certain matters and have moved away from certain provisions of the Indian Act towards various alternative pieces of legislation. This includes areas such as education (e.g. First Nations Jurisdiction over Education in British Columbia Act), electoral reform (e.g. First Nations Elections Act), and land management (e.g. First Nations Land Management Act). Some legislation has also removed the requirement for ministerial approval in specific circumstances. For example, under the First Nations Fiscal Management Act, which provides tools for modern fiscal management, taxation by-laws are now approved by the First Nations Tax Commission, rather than by the Minister. However, while the Minister may have fewer operational requirements in these instances, he continues to retain full accountability to Parliament for all of the statutes for which he is responsible.

The AANDC Mandate

The Department is responsible for two mandates Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development which together support Aboriginal and northern peoples in the pursuit of healthy and sustainable communities, and to participate more fully in Canada's political, social and economic development.

There are also a number of agencies and commissions that fall under the portfolio, which are described in tab 5 of this briefing book.

Regulations Currently in Force

Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development Canada (AANDC) develops and enforces regulations under authority delegated by enabling legislation. There are currently109 regulations in force.

Of interest: New or amended regulations brought forward over the past decade.

Quasi-Judicial

The AANDC Minister is named in the Specific Claims Tribunal Act as the responsible Minister for the Specific Claims Tribunal, which was established in 2008 to help ensure fairness in the way specific claims are handled. In this capacity, the AANDC Minister tables the annual report of the Tribunal in Parliament. The AANDC Minister also jointly recommends, with the Minister of Justice, Order in Council appointments of Superior Court judges to the Tribunal. The Honourable Harry A. Slade, a judge of the Supreme Court of British Columbia, has been Chairperson since 2009. See separate note under Early Issues on the five-year review of the Specific Claims Tribunal.

Northern Organizations

There are 38 northern organizations (boards, panels) many of which were created out of land claims agreements or legislation. Most are co-management boards that require the signatories to the land claims agreements to jointly nominate and appoint members. Some are appointed by federal Order in Council, some can be appointed directly by the AANDC Minister, and others are appointed by the other signatories.

Each territory has several organisations pertaining to environmental impact and renewable resources, land use and water, and dispute resolution and arbitration. There are also two boards responsible for caribou management (Porcupine Caribou Management Board in Yukon and Beverly and Qamanirjuaq Caribou Management Board in Nunavut). Boards in Nunavik, Quebec, and Labrador are also counted among the northern boards. Filling positions for the northern boards, in particular, requires consultation and agreement of multiple parties, which can take months before an appointment is ready to be considered by Cabinet (Order in Council appointments) or the AANDC Minister (ministerial appointments).

The Nutrition North Canada Advisory Board was set up in 2010 to help guide the direction and activities of the program. It was established to engage Northerners in providing informed advice on what's working with regard to the Nutrition North Canada program and what improvements could be made.

Southern Organisations

There are a total of eight boards in the south including the aforementioned Indian Oil and Gas Co-management Board. Many are national in scope such as the First Nations Financial Management Board, the First Nations Tax Commission, and the National Aboriginal Economic Development Board.

The First Nations Financial Management Board was established in 2006 under the First Nations Fiscal and Statistical Management Act. The Board is intended to assist First Nations in strengthening their local financial management regimes. It also provides certification to support borrowing. Three of its members are appointed by the Aboriginal Financial Officers Association, the remaining members by federal Order in Council on the recommendation of the AANDC Minister. Harold Calla has been Chairperson since December 2010.

The First Nations Tax Commission was also created in 2006 under the First Nations Fiscal and Statistical Management Act. The Commission regulates and streamlines the approval of property tax and new local revenue laws of 158 participating First Nations. It also builds administrative capacity through sample laws and accredited training, and reconciles First Nation government and taxpayer interests. One member is appointed by the Native Law Centre at the University of Saskatchewan, the rest by federal Order in Council. Manny Jules has served as Chief Commissioner since 2006.

The National Aboriginal Economic Development Board is another advisory board, established in 1993. The Board brings together 13 First Nations, Inuit and Métis business and community leaders from all regions of Canada to advise the federal government on ways to help increase Aboriginal economic participation in the Canadian economy. The current Chairperson is Clarence Louie, Chief of the successful Osoyoos First Nation in British Columbia.

There is one regional board of note located in British Columbia. The British Columbia Treaty Commission is responsible for facilitating and monitoring treaty negotiations among First Nations in the province as per section 5 of the British Columbia Treaty Commission Act. One of its key activities is the allocation of negotiation support funding provided by the federal and BC governments to the more than 40 First Nations participating in the British Columbia treaty process. Two Commissioners are appointed by the First Nations Summit, one Commissioner is appointed by the federal government (AANDC), and one Commissioner is appointed by the Government of British Columbia. The Chief Commissioner is appointed jointly by all three parties. The current acting Chief Commissioner is Celeste Haldane.

Individuals

In addition to individual appointments of Administrators and Deputy Commissioners in the North, the AANDC Minister also recommends for Order in Council appointment the Treaty Commissioners in Saskatchewan and Manitoba. The Commissioners are mandated to facilitate discussions between Canada and Treaty First Nations on treaty-related issues, develop partnerships in a treaty context, and undertake public awareness initiatives that promote the importance and relevance of treaties. George Lafond is Saskatchewan Treaty Commissioner. James Wilson is Manitoba Treaty Commissioner

In total, the above responsibilities comprise 389 positions, of which 96 are Order in Council appointments, 175 are ministerial appointments, and 118 are appointed by external parties.

See Annex for a complete listing.

First Nations in Canada (map)

Brief History and Context

• The relationship between the Crown and First Nation people in Canada is one which has been in near constant evolution since it was first established centuries ago.
• It has been impacted by commercial and economic pressures, by shifting alliances and external threats, as well as by policies of protection and subordination.
• Initially created to manage the military alliances, the Indian Department has been transformed over time into the Department of Indian and Northern Affairs, managing not only Canada's relationship with First Nations, the Inuit and Métis, but also all of Canada's North.
• Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development Canada continues to change to meet the needs and challenges faced by Canada's Aboriginal people.

First Nation Languages

• There are over 50 spoken First Nation languages in Canada; however, only about five to six languages are most commonly used.
• The Algonquin language family reports the highest number of speakers, including:
  • Cree which is spoken in Saskatchewan, Manitoba, Alberta and Quebec;
  • Ojibway and Oji-Cree which are spoken in Ontario and Manitoba;
  • Innu/Montagnais which is spoken in Quebec and Newfoundland and Labrador; and
  • Mi'Kmaq which is spoken in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick.
  • Dene, which is part of the second most spoken language family (Athabascan), is spoken among First Nations in Saskatchewan and Alberta.

Social Customs

Social Customs – Ceremonies

Ceremonies

• In ceremonies where First Nations are central participants, it can be expected that representatives will request that sacred objects be included such as drums, feathers, and eagle staffs. Provisions should be made to accommodate these sacred objects as much as possible and be displayed in a prominent manner during the ceremony.
• If eagle staffs are to be included, it is advisable to request that the First Nation provide a stand for the staff.

Feasts

• Feasts can involve sharing of food, natural resources, one's labour, and hospitality.
• Refusal may result in loss of face for one who offers, so if invited to a family's home or to a community feast, politely accepting what is offered is best.
• Gift giving was traditionally a matter of sharing resources, but a thoughtful token of respect is appreciated (value depends on the means of the recipient).

Cultural Customs

Respected Characteristics and Teachings

Teachings

• Many First Nations follow the teachings of the 7 fires: Humility, Honesty, Love, Truth, Respect, Bravery, and Wisdom.

Medicine Wheel

• The Medicine Wheel has four quadrants and symbolizes the interconnection of all life, the various cycles of nature, and how life represents a circular journey.
• The number four is sacred to many First Nations peoples of North America and can represent many things: the four seasons,
• the four parts of a person (physical, mental, emotional and spiritual); the four kingdoms (animal, mineral, plant and human); and the four sacred medicines (sweetgrass, tobacco, cedar and sage). Hence, you may see the medicine wheel presented in several different ways.

Conclusion

• We recommend you always ask about a First Nation community you are meeting with, in order to know their specific customs, traditions and protocols.
• Acknowledge that the event/ceremony is being held in the territory of the local First Nation community.
• Not giving a tobacco offering to an Elder who is part of the event may be seen as an insult.

Inuit in Canada

In 2006, the Inuit population estimated at 50,485 (Source: Statistics Canada) Approximately 78% of Inuit live in 53 communities in the four Inuit regions.

Description - Inuit in Canada – map

A map from 2006 on Canada's North that shows Inuit population in the 53 communities within the four northern regions: Inuvialuit, Nunavut, Nunatsiavut and Nunavik. The total population of these 53 communities is about 50,485.

About 3,115 (6%) of Canada's Inuit live in Inuvialuit which is in northern Yukon and in northern Northwest Territories.

About 24,635 (49%) of Canadian Inuit live in the province of Nunavut.

About 9,565 (19%) of Canadian Inuit live in Nunavik, which is in Northern Quebec.

About 2,160 (4%) of Canadian Inuit live in Nunatsiavut, which is in Labrador.

About 11,005 (22%) of Canada's Inuit live outside of the land claims settlement regions.

Brief History and Context

• Prior to the 1950s, many Inuit still lived in small, autonomous, nomadic groups in Canada's Arctic.
• Inuit survived by hunting, fishing and gathering.
• By the 1950s, Inuit were being settled into permanent communities.
• Schools, medical care, trading posts and access to southern food staples became more readily available.
• With such an abrupt immersion into modernization, Inuit have had to adjust to balancing traditional beliefs and customs with expectations and modern structures brought by outsiders.
• There are still people alive today who were born and raised on the land and are unilingual Inuktitut speakers.
• All four Inuit regions have comprehensive land claim agreements and have permanent membership on the Arctic Council.

Social Customs

• Usual greeting: a smile and handshake.
• Clarity of intentions, friendliness and sympathy are good starters.
  • Aggressiveness and forwardness will result in caution and reserve .
• Strong emotions are not usually displayed publicly.
  • Inuit usually smile and are attentive out of politeness, but stronger emotions may run beneath the surface.
  • Emotions are often expressed subtly through tone of voice or facial expressions (lifting of eyebrows to say 'yes' or crinkling of the nose for 'no').
• In unfamiliar social or professional situations, Inuit may seem withdrawn – they prefer to initially observe the situation to determine what behaviour is expected.
• Traditional storytelling, mythology, singing and dancing remain important parts of the culture.
• Family and community are very important.

Language

• Throughout Inuit Nunangat (which means 'the place where Inuit live'), Inuktitut is spoken; however, each region has its own dialect(s).
• There are two written styles of Inuktitut: syllabics and roman orthography.
• "Thank you" can be written in a variety of ways, dependant on the dialect:

Inuit Elders

• Elders play a strong role in the family and the community and are acknowledged with respect.
• Elders are regarded as culture-bearers, not a measure of chronological age, but a function of the respect accorded to individuals who exemplify the values and lifestyle of the culture.
• Traditionally, Inuit Elders would offer traditional words of advice when needed. It is custom that younger people not ask too many questions to an older person. Although this may have changed for the younger generation, many still respect these values.

Respected Characteristics

Characteristics that were once a matter of survival on the land and in the camps are still revered today:

• Self-reliance, innovation, resourcefulness, perseverance, patience, fatalism (acceptance of what we can't control), tact, and humility.
  • Frustration and anger are considered immature responses.
  • Boasting is ill-mannered and may be considered a put-down to others.
• Sharing of food, natural resources, one's labour, and hospitality.
  • Refusal may result in loss of face for the one who offers, so if invited to a family's home or to a community feast, politeness in accepting what is offered is appropriate.
  • With modernization these values are still important, but are less clear.
  • Gift giving was traditionally a matter of sharing resources, but a thoughtful token of respect is appreciated (value depends on the means of the recipient).

Authority and Leadership Customs - today

Preserving traditional values with today's socio-economic systems can be challenging:

• Due to the value placed on individual independence, direct requests may seem rude and aggressive and may place others in an uncomfortable position.
  • Direct refusals are also considered rude and aggressive.
• Exertion of authority (e.g. as store managers, government leaders, directors, etc.) over others requires adaptation.
  • Possibly why there is high turnover in these types of jobs.
• Non-interference, i.e. freedom to lead lives without dictation from others.
  • Hierarchy can lead to discomfort in exercising authority over fellow Inuit.
• Inuit leadership is an exercise in taking initiative and leading by example rather than delegation.

Conclusion

• Inuit continue to maintain their unique culture within their distinct homeland
• Despite modern influences and conveniences, Inuit have retained their language, core knowledge and beliefs.

The Métis – Where they live (map)

Brief History and Context

• The Métis are a people of North American Indian and European ancestry who coalesced into distinct peoples emerging with their own distinct identity, language (Michif), culture (song, dance, dress, national symbols, etc.), traditions and way of life.
• The Métis in western Canada identify as the 'Métis Nation' and were recognized as such by others. Throughout its history in western Canada, Métis people have stood up to defend their lands, rights, interests, and way of life, as Canada evolved as a country.
• Today, the Métis people continue to advocate their rights and interests through national representative organizations such as the Métis National Council and the Congress of Aboriginal Peoples; and, their respective provincial affiliates.

Métis Territory

• Métis were traditionally a nomadic people, and followed the buffalo and the fur trade. They did not have a recognized land base in the same manner that the First Nations have had since the creation of the reserve system in the mid-1850s.
• In fact, with the creation of the reserve system, Métis were not allowed to live on First Nation reserves or in the neighbouring communities – so they lived along the sides of roads, resulting in the name "road allowance people
• While many of the Métis individuals in the East, Quebec and Ontario, assimilated into the various local communities, the Métis in the West created very distinct societies, especially around the Red River Basin (Manitoba).
• Alberta is the only place in Canada where the Métis managed to hold a land base in Canada – these are known as the Métis Settlements.

Social Customs and Symbols

• Customs and protocols will vary greatly from province to province and from community to community.
• Some Métis customs are similar to First Nation ceremonies.
  • All ceremonies are opened and closed with a prayer, usually given by an Elder.
  • However, certain elements common to First Nation ceremonies, such as smudging or pipe ceremonies, may not be present at Métis ceremonies.
• Common elements present at most Métis ceremonies include fiddle music, the Métis infinity flag, the "sash", and art with visible beadwork which are all rooted in Métis history and represent aspects of the distinct Métis culture.

Conclusion

• Métis are distinct Aboriginal peoples with their own identity, culture and rights.
• At ceremonies and meetings, it is customary to acknowledge Elders first, followed by Métis leaders that may be present.
• It is customary that, when the Métis National Anthem is played, Ministers and guests stand to pay their respect.